Radio based positioning and video based positioning

Since a decade, non-satellite positioning has attracted the interests of research and industries as one of the key enablers for location-based services. In this regard, a number of solutions as well as commercial product have been developed for a multitude of application scenarios as in home and office, warehouse, industrial and hospital environments. For 5GCAR the main field of interest was of course positioning for Vehicular-to-Everything (V2X) applications. Ultimately, the 3GPP standardization group also initiated work-items on this topic with the aim of empowering 5G technology of for a reliable and accurate positioning system, which can be used anywhere and anytime. The focus of this Chapter is to provide an overview of state-of-art radio and image-based positioning, tailored to the localization of connected autonomous vehicles. More specifically, we shall address the technology and performance requirements of legacy solutions along with the details of time-based, angular-based and video-based positioning. Some of the proposed methods will closely follow the LTE/NR standards, others will show the more innovative solutions which can achieve high level of accuracy. Finally, the Chapter will conclude with a comprehensive set of simulations highlighting pros and cons of each solution.